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HomeMy WebLinkAbout[019] Background Notes on Indiabackground Official Name: Republic of India PROFILE People Nationality: Noun and adjective-Indian(s). Population (1981 census): 684 million; urban 21.5%. Annual growth rate: 2.24%. Density: 221/sq. km. (572/sq. mi.). Ethnic groups: 72% Indo-Aryan, 25% Dravidian, 2% Mongo- loid, others. Religions: Hindu 83%, Muslim 11%, Christian 2.6%, Sikh, Jain, Buddhist, Parsi. Languages: Hindi, English, and 14 other official languages. Education: Years compulsory-9 (to age 14). Literacy-36%. United States Department of State Bureau of Public Affairs Health: Infant mortality rate (1978 est.)- 139/1,000. Life expectancy-54 yrs. Work force: (278 million, 1980 est.): Agriculture- 70.807b. Industry and commerce-19.4%. Serv- ices and government-7.6%. Transport and communications -2.2%. Geography Area: 3,287,590 sq. km. (1,269,340 sq. mi.); about twice the size of Alaska. Capital: New Delhi (pop. 5.2 million). Other major cities: Calcutta (9 million), Bombay (8 million), Madras (4 million), Bangalore (3 million), Hyderabad (2.6 million), Ahmedabad (2.5 million). Terrain: Varies from Himalaya mountains to flat Gangetic Plain. Climate: Temperate to subtropical monsoon. Government Type: Federal republic. Independence: August 15, 1947. Constitution: January 26, 1950. Branches: Executive-president (chief of state), prime minister (head of government), Council of Ministers (cabinet). Legislative- bicameral Parliament (Rajya Sabha or Coun- cil of States and Lok Sabha or House of the People). Judicial-Supreme Court. Political parties: Congress (I), Congress (S), Lok Dal, Bharatiya Party, Janata Party, Communist Parties (CPI and CPM). Suffrage: Universal over 21. Political subdivisions: 22 states, 9 union territories. Central government budget (1981-82 est.): $21.85 billion. Defense expenditures (1979-80 est.): 3.1% of GNP. Flag: Saffron, white, and green hori- zontal bands with a blue spoked wheel in the center. Saffron symbolizes courage and sacri- India June 1982 fice; white, peace and truth; green, faith and chivalry; and the spoked wheel, India's an- cient culture. Economy' GNP: $167 billion. Real growth rate: 47o. Per capita GNP: $245. Real per capita GNP growth rate: 2%. Annual inflation rate 1981: 10%. Natural resources: Coal, iron ore, man- ganese, mica, bauxite, chromite, limestone, barite. Agriculture (43% of GNP): Products- textiles, jute, processed food, steel, machinery, transport equipment, cement, aluminum, fertilizers. Trade: Exports-$9.1 billion: engineering goods, cotton apparel and fabrics, precious stones, handicrafts, tea. Imports-$16.1 billion: petroleum, edible oils, machinery and transport equipment, fertilizer. Major part- ners-US, USSR, Japan, UK, Iraq, Iran. Currency: Rupee, divided into 100 paise. Official exchange rate (1981-82): 8.8 rupees = US$1. Fiscal year: April 1-March 31. Economic aid (1947-80): Total-$35.1 billion: multinational lending agencies and OECD, Communist, and OPEC countries. US aid-$11.7 billion, of which AID $4 billion, PL 480 $6.1 billion, Exim Bank loans $614 million, wheat loans $244 million. Membership in international organiza- tions: UN, Nonaligned Movement, Common- wealth, Colombo Plan, Asian Development Bank (ADB), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, INTELSAT. 'All figures are 1981-82 estimates. U s.8 it. tt.S.S.R. Teeheng India International boundary AfghBniS Ctim"O" Wisnoffm O National capital tI~ r Railroad r at eh' Road • Srinagar ~ L China + International airport Jammu t 0 100 200 300 Miles h$t ~ l 1-1-j . C3ar 0 100 200 300 Kilometers an atwr'' Anxrtsar .-O} Olk i a .Simla Chandigarh' „-+'--30 yartllrt 96 Jran fC3r&hmsPu New Dl & St+kk'_....I N 8 f t to :pro edo t ~ Agra tok• ~ Jaipur Lucknovy Patna A 7b enares O \ Gandhinagar Asans andlal~''. / •Ahmadabad Bhopal --JJamshedpu, tta i B a• rJa w 1, 0 a Raip V Brava. Na ur • u~ 9P ~ Cuttack• • neswar -20 -7 uri Bombay S Poona 1 !t • Hyderab' d VishAkhapatnam i ~ knh Say of I ' Ara `b i a n Mormugao • Guntakal Bengal Sie a I ~ o Bangalore • adras 1 Mangalore Laksadwee ` uddatore ( ndia) P r.~ CalrcutF f{ • Mad ai a a a'- r Trincomatee 1 \ Trivandrurrlc} ) r f rt tan a Shillong• KoMma- imphal i rtala • r Agat i T r ©V ° Sun" ~ z G 1 ANDAMAN portatalr ' ISLANDS (India) t,} Laccadive Sea { Maldives colombo 1 NAMES ANO BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION 1 2I $d~ ARE NOT NECESSARILY AUTHORITATIVE NICOBAR 0 ISLANDS (India) e ° ao oQ 2 PEOPLE Although India occupies only 2.4% of the world's land area, it supports nearly 15% of the world's population. Only China has a larger population. A large percentage of India's population is in its teens-40% of Indians are younger than 15 years old. About 80% of the people live in more than 550,000 villages and the remainder, in more than 200 towns and cities. Two major ethnic strains predomin- ate in India, the Aryan in the north and the Dravidian in the south, although the lines between them are blurred. An aboriginal tribal population lives largely in the central forests and mountains; some Mongoloid people live in the far northern mountain regions. Although 83% of the people are Hin- du, India is also the home of more than 70 million Muslims, giving India one of the world's largest Muslim populations. Adherents of other religions include Christians, Jews, Sikhs, Jains, Bud- dhists, and Parsis. The caste system, comprising the "classes" of Indian society, is based theoretically on employment-related categories ranked on a theoretically defined hierarchy. Traditionally, four classes were identified, plus a class of outcasts or untouchables. Despite eco- nomic development and modernization and laws countering discrimination against the lower end of the class struc- ture, the caste system remains an im- portant factor in Indian society. GEOGRAPHY India dominates the South Asian sub- continent geographically. It has common borders with Bangladesh, Burma, Paki- stan, China, Nepal, and Bhutan; Sri Lanka lies beyond a narrow strait off In- dia's southern tip. India has three main topographical areas: • The sparsely populated Himalaya Mountains, extending along the whole of the northern border; • The heavily populated Gangetic Plain, a well-watered and fertile area in the north; and • The peninsula, including Deccan Plateau, which is generally of moderate elevation. The climate varies from tropical in the south to temperate in the north, with three well-defined seasons through- out most of the country: • The cool season from November to March; • A dry, hot season from March to June; and • A hot, rainy season during the re- mainder of the year. In addition, much of southeastern India is subject to a second rainy period during the cool season. Precipitation ranges from more than 1,000 cen- timeters (400 in.) annually in the north- east Assam Hills to less than 12 centi- meters (5 in.) in the northwest Ra- jasthan Desert. HISTORY The people of India have had a continu- ous civilization since about 2500 B.C., when the inhabitants of the Indus River valley developed an urban culture based on commerce, trade, and, to a lesser degree, agriculture. This civilization declined about 1500 B.C., and Aryan tribes originating in central Asia ab- sorbed parts of its culture as they spread over the South Asian subcon- tinent. During the next few centuries, India flourished under several successive em- pires. The Arabs expanded into western India in the seventh and eighth centuries A.D., bringing with them the Islamic faith and beginning a period during which the two systems-the prevailing Hindu and the Muslim-mingled, leaving lasting cultural influences on each other. Before the British arrived, the Mogul Empire, a Muslim dynasty, controlled much of the subcontinent. The first British outpost in South Asia was established in 1619 at Surat on the northwestern coast of India. Later in the century, permanent trading sta- tions were opened by the East India Company at Madras, Bombay, and Cal- cutta, each under the protection of native rulers. The British gradually ex- panded their influence from these foot- holds, until, by the 1850s, they con- trolled almost the entire area of present- day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. A widespread mutiny in 1857 led the - British Government to remove the last vestiges of political power from the East India Company. From then until inde- pendence in 1947, the United Kingdom administered most of India directly and controlled the rest through treaties with local rulers. Beginning in 1920, Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi transformed the Indian National Congress into a mass move- ment and used it to mount a popular campaign against British colonial rule. The Congress used parliamentary and extra-parliamentary means-nonviolent resistance and noncooperation-to seek its goal. Independence was attained on August 15, 1947, and India became a dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations with Jawaharlal Nehru as prime minister. Longstanding frictions be- tween the Hindus and Muslims caused the British to create two countries out of British India: India, and Pakistan as the homeland for the Muslims. India's constitution was promulgated on January 26, 1950, when the country be- came a republic within the Common- wealth. Prime Minister Nehru governed the nation until his death in May 1964. He was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri, a veteran of the Congress movement. READING LIST These titles are provided as a general indica- tion of material published on this country. The Department of State does not endorse unofficial publications. American University. Area Handbook for India. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1975. Barnds, William J. India, Pakistan, and the Great Powers. New York: Praeger, 1972. Basham, A.L. The Wonder That Was India New York: Grove Press, 1959. Brown, W. Norman. The United States and India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972. Collins, Larry and Dominique Lapierre. Free- dom at Midnight. Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1975. Fodor's Guide to India. New York: David McKay Co., 1979. Frankel, Francine R. India's Political Econo- my, 1947-1977. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978. Hardgrave, Robert L., Jr. India: Government and Politics in a Developing Nation. 3d ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovano- vich, 1980. Nehru, Jawaharlal. Robert I. Crane, ed. The Discovery of India. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1960. Rudolph, Lloyd I. and Susanne H. The Modernity of Tradition: Political Devel- opment in India,. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967. Srinivas, M.N. The Remembered Village. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. Williams, L.F. Rushbrook, ed. A Handbook for Travelers in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka (Ceylon). 22d ed. New York: Barnes and Nobel, 1976. Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977. When Shastri died in January 1966, power passed Lo Jawaharlal Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, who was prime minister from 1966 to 1977. In that year, Prime Minister Gandhi was re- placed by Morarji Desai, a veteran politi- cal leader who headed the Janata Party, an amalgam of five opposition parties that had united against Mrs. Gandhi and the Congress Party. In 1979, dissension within the Janata government led to Desai's loss of a majority in the Parlia- ment. He was succeeded as prime minister by Charan Singh, whose in- terim government set the stage for new elections, which returned Mrs. Gandhi to office in January 1980. GOVERNMENT According to its constitution, India is a 1 "sovereign Socialist secular democratic republic." Like the United States, India has a federal form of government. How ever, the central government in India has greater power in relation to its states, and government is patterned after the British parliamentary system. The government exercises its broad administrative powers in the name of the president, whose duties are largely ceremonial. The president and vice president are elected indirectly for 5-year terms by a special electoral col- lege. Real national executive power is centered in the Council of Ministers (cabinet), led by the prime minister. The president appoints the prime minister, who is designated by legislators of the political party, or coalition of parties, commanding a parliamentary majority. The president then appoints subordinate ministers on the advice of the prime minister. India's bicameral Parliament consists of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of People). The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha. The legislatures of the states and union territories elect 232 members to the Rajya Sabha, and the president ap- points another 12. The elected members of the Rajya Sabha serve 6-year terms, with one-third up for election every 2 years. The Lok Sabha consists of 544 members, 542 of whom are directly elected to 5-year terms. The other two are appointed. India's independent judicial system had its beginnings under the British, and its concepts and procedures resemble those of Anglo-Saxon countries. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and 13 other justices, all appointed by e president on the advice of the prime inister. India has 22 states and 9 union terri- ries. At the state level, some of the 6slatures are bicameral, patterned -ter the two houses of the national arliament. The states' chief ministers •e responsible to the legislatures in the ime way the prime minister is respon- ble to Parliament. Each state also has a presidentially ppointed governor who has ceremonial owers normally but who assumes cer- im broad powers during any period of reakdown of state parliamentary -overnment. The central government ex- rts greater control over the union terri- ories than over the states, although ome territories have gained more )ower to administer their own affairs. Local governments in India have ess autonomy than their counterparts in the United States. Some states are im- plementing a policy of revitalizing the traditional village councils and introduc- ing "grassroots democracy" at the village level, where 80% of the people live. Principal Government Officials President-N. Sanjiva Reddy Vice President-M. Hidayatullah Council of Ministers Prime Minister-Indira Gandhi Agriculture; Civil Supplies-Rao Birendra Singh Commerce; Steel and Mines-Shiv Raj Patil Communications -C-M- Stephen Education and Social Welfare-Sheila Kaul Energy-A.B.A. Ghani Khan Choudhuri External Affairs-P.V. Narasimha Rao Finance-Pranab Makheriee Health and Family Welfare-B. Shankaranand Home Affairs-Giani Zail Singh Information and Broadcasting -Vasant P. Sathe Law, Justice, and Company Affairs- P. Jagannath Kaushal Parliamentary Affairs; Works and Housing -Bhishma Narain Singh Petroleum, Chemicals, and Fertilizer- Shiv Shankar Planning; Labor-S.B. Chavan Railroads-P.C. Sethi Shipping and Transport-Veerendra Patil Defense-R. Venkataraman Irrigation-Kedar Pandey Industries, Steel, and Mines-N.D. Tiwari Ambassador to the United States- K.R. Narayanan Ambassador to the United Nations- N. Krishnan India maintains an embassy in the United States at 2107 Massachusetts Avenue NW., Washington, D.C. 20008 (tel. 202-265-5050) and consulates general in New York, Chicago, and San Francisco. POLITICAL CONDITIONS India's first experience of non-Congress Party government ended in January 1980 with the return of Indira Gandhi, who engineered a remarkable political comeback. Mrs. Gandhi had altered the style of government substantially in June 1975 when, responding to an op- position campaign to force her resigna- tion, she declared a state of emergency. Parliament ratified the declaration, and elections scheduled for March 1976 were postponed. The government arrested thousands of political opponents under the Maintenance of Internal Security Act and imposed press censorship. Confident that she still held broad national support, Mrs. Gandhi scheduled elections for March 1977, but voters re- jected her government in favor of the loose alliance of five opposition parties hastily assembled to contest the election. These subsequently merged to form the coalition Janata (People's) Party, the first non-Congress Party government to rule India since independence. Prime Minister Morarji Desai dismantled the structures of the emergency. The Janata government also launched a judicial inquiry into the ac- tivities of Mrs. Gandhi and her govern- ment. In early 1979, Parliament denied Mrs. Gandhi a seat she had won in a by- election, and her political future ap- peared to be in doubt. In 1979, political fortunes changed rapidly, however, as internal dissension weakened the Janata Party. After months of dispute over party structure, the coalition unraveled in July 1979 and Prime Minister Desai resigned. He was succeeded briefly by Charan Singh as in- terim prime minister, and new elections were called. They provided an opportuni- ty for the reemergence of Mrs. Gandhi and her Congress (1) Party as a national political force. Congress (I) obtained an overwhelm- ing majority in the Lok Sabha, and sub- sequent indirect elections to the Rajya Sabha produced an absolute Congress (I) majority there as well. Realignments and state elections in 1980 and subse- quent state elections in four states in 1982 resulted in Congress (I) control over 17 of India's 22 states. Political Parties Congress (I) ("I" for "Indira") governs nationally and in 15 of the 22 states. No one in the party plays as strong a role as Indira Gandhi. Her son, Sanjay, was a close adviser, but in June 1980 he was killed in a plane crash. Her eldest son, Rajiv, a member of Parliament, plays an increasingly important role as adviser. Congress (S) is the other claimant of the Congress heritage, including leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi and Nehru. Its president is Sharad Pawar, but it also contains many congressmen prominent in Mrs. Gandhi's earlier government. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), under former Foreign Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, is one of the three ma- jor remnants of the Janata government that broke up in July 1979. A descend- ant of the earlier, urban, Hindu-oriented Jana Sangh Party, the BJP has broad- ened its base to attract non-Hindus and rural groups. The Lok Dal, under former Prime Minister Charan Singh, draws its strength from certain agricultural com- munities. This party is also a product of the breakup of the old Janata amalga- mation. The Janata Party, the third spin-off of the Janata government's breakup, is led by Chandra Shekhar. It includes splinter groups reflecting various in- terests, including populist, Socialist, and business. India has two important Communist parties-the pro-Soviet Communist Par- ty of India (CPI) and the Communist Party of India-Marxist (CPM), which broke with CPI in 1964 and is essentially independent. Both join in the parliamen- tary process, and they hold or share power in the states of West Bengal and Tripura. Small, leftist splinter groups also exist, some of them advocating violent overthrow of the government. Regional parties based on ethnic or linguistic elements are significant in In- dia and govern in five states. Of these parties, the most important are the Na- tional Conference, which controls Jam- mu and Kashmir, and the All India Ann Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), which rules in Tamil Nadu. In the latter state, the major opposition, Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), is also a regional party. Some northeastern states are governed by tribal-based par- ties. ECONOMY Domestically, India has made consider- able economic progress since independ- ence. A relatively sophisticated in- dustrial base and a large pool of skilled labor have been created. However, agri- culture remains the crucial sector-in- fluenced significantly by monsoons, de- pended upon by 74% of the people, and contributing more than 40% of gross na- tional product (GNP). Only modest gains in per capita GNP have been achieved. The Indian economy, one of the largest in the, world, has been growing relatively slowly-an average of more than 3% an- nually. The population, estimated at 684 million in 1981, has been increasing in recent years by more than 2% per year. Agricultural production has been in- creasing at an average annual rate of 2.9%. A surge in production occurred in the late 1960s and early 1970s because of the "green revolution," which made India basically self-sufficient in grain production because of improved use of hybrid seed, irrigation, and fertilizer. A record foodgrain harvest of 132 million metric tons occurred in 1978-79. This was followed by a drop in production, resulting from the failure of the 1979 summer monsoon, but improved rainfall during the 1980-81 and 1981-82 crop years increased foodgrain production. The government has placed high priority on increasing irrigated land, and nearly 30% of total cultivated area receives some irrigation. Cotton and jute textile production continues to be the most important in- dustry, but public-sector firms in steel, heavy industry, and chemicals have be- come important since 1960. India manu- factures various finished products for domestic use and export. Substantial mineral resources-coal, iron ore, baux- ite, and manganese-have been only par- tially exploited. Despite industrial development, unemployment and under- employment are major problems. Foreign Trade and Assistance India's foreign trade in 1980-81 totaled $24.6 billion, including a record trade deficit of about $7.4 billion. The deficit rose dramatically, mainly because of the sharp increase in India's petroleum im- port bill following OPEC [Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries] price rises. Exports have increased notably in recent years, with engineering goods now the leading category. The United States is India's largest trade partner. In 1980, bilateral trade was $2.8 billion, with $600 million in favor of the United States. Foreign assistance authorized since 1947 amounted to more than $35 billion. The most important donor in recent years has been the International Devel- opment Agency of the World Bank group (with aid to India totaling $13 billion). The United States has provided about $12 billion to India in various types of aid, much of it during the 1960s. In recent years, the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID) program has emphasized agricultural TRAVEL NOTES Climate and clothing-Summer clothing is suitable year round in the south. In the north, lightweight woolens are necessary from mid-December to mid-March. Customs and currency-US citizens who are nontourists or tourists traveling overland must have a valid visa for the duration of their stay. Tourists arriving at Indian inter- national airports without a visa may obtain a 30-day "landing permit" on arrival, if they have not traveled to India within the preced- ing 6 months. The landing permit may be used for two additional trips to neighboring countries, except Pakistan. It cannot be ex- tended. Foreign currency (including travelers checks) must be declared to customs on ar- rival if more than $1,000, but is not other- wise restricted. Import and export of Indian currency are prohibited. Health-Tapwater is unsafe throughout In- dia. In hotels and .restaurants, drink only bot- tled or carbonated water and avoid ice cubes. Cholera, malaria, and measles inoculations are recommended. Health requirements change; check latest information. Telecommunications-telephone service within India and to international points is fair. Telegraph service tends to be unreliable. India is 101/2 hours ahead of eastern standard time. Transportation-Many international carriers provide service to New Delhi, Bombay, and Calcutta. Indian Airlines has flights to many Indian cities. The railway system provides service between most major cities. The 1,450 km. (900 mi.) trip from Delhi to Calcutta or Bombay takes from 16 to 24 hrs. The 2,470 km. (1,535 mi.) trip from Delhi to Madras takes about 40 hrs. It is possible to travel almost everywhere by road during the dry season; however, outside urban areas, the roads are narrow and often impasgable dur- ing the monsoon. Local transportation in- cludes buses, taxies, three-wheeled scooters, cycle rickshaws, and horsedrawn tongas. Buses are overcrowded and service is ir- regular. Taxies are plentiful in the larger cities. and rural development and health and family planning. Export earnings, substantial foreign aid flows, and remittances from Indians abroad resulted in a record buildup of foreign exchange reserves, which peaked at $7.4 billion (excluding gold) in Oc- tober 1980. Because of the trade deficits, these reserves had declined to less than $5 billion by the end of 1981. In order to correct balance-of-payments problems, India requested an Interna- tional Monetary Fund (IMF) program of 5 billion special drawing rights units over 3 years. The IMF Board approved the loan in November 1981. FOREIGN RELATIONS Since independence, India has been ac- tive in the United Nations as one of the leaders of the developing nations. In years past, India made important contri- butions to U.N. peacekeeping operations in Korea, the Gaza Strip, the Congo, and Cyprus. In addition, India led the in- ternational control commissions estab- lished in Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia (Kampuchea) under the 1954 and 1962 Geneva agreements. India's role in world affairs has de- rived from its size and population and the personal influence of Jawaharlal Nehru, a chief architect of the Non- aligned Movement. More recently, India's broadening industrial base, mili- tary strength, and growing scientific and technical capacity have added to its prominence in international affairs. India continues to be a leader in the Non- aligned Movement and has an important voice in the North-South dialogue. Pakistan and Bangladesh India's relations with Pakistan have been troubled from the outset by the cen- turies-old rivalry between the Hindus and Muslims of the subcontinent, a situation which led to partition of British India in 1947. The principal point of dispute has been Kashmir: the Hindu maharaja of Kashmir chose to join India, although most of his subjects were Muslim. India has maintained that this decision and subsequent elections in Kashmir have made it an integral part of India. Pakistan has asserted Kashmir's right to self-determination in accordance with an earlier Indian pledge and a U.N. resolution. The dispute trig- gered open warfare between the two countries in 1947-48 and in 1965. In December 1971, following the crisis in what was then East Pakistan and the flight of millions of Bengali refugees to India, Pakistan and India again went to war. The brief conflict left the situation unaltered in the west, but in the east, a decisive Indian victory resulted in the creation of Bangladesh. Since the 1971 war, Pakistan and In- dia have moved slowly toward normali- zation of relations. In July 1972, Indian Prime Minister Gandhi and Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto met in the Indian city of Simla, launching negotia- tions to resolve problems resulting from the war and to seek a more stable basis for peace in the region. Diplomatic and trade relations were reestablished in 1976. Since the Soviet invasion of Afghani- stan, new strains have appeared in Indian-Pakistani relations, particularly as India voiced concern over an arms buildup by Pakistan. In early 1982, how- ever, former Pakistan Foreign Minister Agha Shahi traveled to New Delhi to begin discussions with Indian officials on a nonaggression pact. At the time, his visit helped to reduce bilateral tensions that had developed during the previous year regarding the new U.S. security and economic aid relationship with Paki- stan and Indian fears of what it alleged was a Pakistani program to develop nuclear weapons. Meanwhile, the 1975 overthrow of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in Bangladesh led to tensions between that country and India, which had enjoyed warm relations with him. The two governments found difficulty in agreeing on their common border, and they continued to negotiate this question in 1981. Another thorny issue concerned allocation of water from the Ganges River, part of which flows to Calcutta while the main channel reaches the sea through Bangladesh. An interim agreement in 1977 has not led to a longer term settlement. China After independence, India initially en- joyed cordial relations with China, but tension arising from the disputed border led to military conflict in 1962. After a month of fighting, in which Chinese forces penetrated deep into Indian- claimed territory, China proclaimed a cease-fire and generally withdrew to positions held before the outbreak of hostilities, except in the Ladakh area of Kashmir. Sino-Indian relations still have not recovered fully from that experience. The border dispute which provoked the war remains unsettled. Since that Con- flict, China has maintained close rela- tions with Pakistan. India's friendly rela- tions with the Soviet Union proved a further obstacle, once Sino-Soviet differ- ences surfaced in the 1960s. Neverthe- less, China and India have moved cautiously toward normalization of rela- tions. In 1976, they exchanged ambassa- dors for the first time since the border war, and the following year they re- opened trade and shipping links. India's foreign minister visited Beijing in 1979, and China's foreign minister returned the visit in 1981. In December 1981 and again in May 1982, India and China held discussions on the border issue and on ways to increase trade and cultural ex- changes. While progress was reported on the two latter subjects, further talks will be necessary on the complicated and sensitive border problem. Soviet Union Since independence, India and the Soviet Union have built a strong rela- tionship on a general coincidence of views on international political problems, their common mistrust of China, Soviet support for India's position in the Kashmir dispute, and Soviet economic and military assistance. Both parties also have profited from a "rupees for rubles" trade relationship permitting them to import goods without spending hard currency. In August 1971, the two countries signed a 20-year treaty of peace, friendship, and cooperation, which India viewed as important support for the Indian position in the Bangladesh crisis. More important to the Indians than any document, however, is their ex- perience that the Soviet Union has sup- ported India in times of trouble and has never appeared to threaten India's in- terests. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, an act that drew sharp reproach from most nonaligned countries, has not altered India's view of Soviet policy ap- preciably. In late 1980, state visits by In- dian President Sanjival Reddy and Soviet President Leonid Brezhnev underscored once again their friendly bi- lateral relations. In 1980, the two coun- tries signed a major arms purchase agreement, and India became the only major non-Communist Third World country to recognize the Soviet-backed Heng Samrin regime in Kampuchea. In- dia has called for withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan but also has in- dicated that this issue should not cloud the mutually beneficial Indo-Soviet rela- tionship. U.S.-INDIAN RELATIONS The United States and India have aimed at cordial relations reflecting their com- mon ideals of democracy and freedom. Framers of the Indian constitution studied the American system and grafted some of its features onto India's essentially parliamentary form of government. The United States is India's largest trading partner and has been an important source of foreign eco- nomic assistance. The United States also provided substantial military equipment following the outbreak of the Sino- Indian war in 1962. Throughout most of 1981, U.S. rela- tions with India were strained, mainly because of the U.S. development of a substantial security and economic assist- ance program with Pakistan. Bilateral issues, such as the future of the U.S.-Indian nuclear fuel supply relation- ship, also contributed to a downturn in U.S.-Indian relations. In the latter part of the year, however, a series of high- level meetings, including discussions between President Reagan and Prime Minister Gandhi at the Cancun Summit, were useful in improving mutual under- standing and indicated interest on both sides in better relations. Prime Minister Gandhi has been in- vited for an official visit to the United States in late July 1982. The visit is an example of the ongoing efforts to build a stronger and more constructive relation- ship between India and the United States. Principal U.S. Officials Ambassador-Harry G. Barnes, Jr. Deputy Chief of Mission-Marion Creekmore Counselor for Political Affairs-W. Grant Smith Counselor for Economic Affairs- Martin G. Heflin Counselor for Commercial Affairs- Hallock R. Lucius Counselor for Agricultural Affairs- W. Garth Thorburn Counselor for Scientific Affairs-Robert A. Stella Counselor for Administrative Affairs- Byron P. Walker Director, AID Mission-Priscilla M. Boughton Consuls General Bombay-J. Bruce Amstutz Calcutta-George F. Sherman Madras-Douglas M. Cochran The U.S. Embassy in India is located at Shanti Path, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi 110021 (tel. 690351). ■ Published by the United States Department of State • Bureau of Public Affairs • Office of Public Communication • Editorial Divi- sion • Washington, D.C. • June 1982 Editor: Joanne Reppert Reams Department of State Publication 7847 Background Notes Series • This material is in the public domain and may be reproduced without permission; citation of this source would be appreciated. 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